Indian Education Scenario : Policies and Programs

Dr. Keshab Chandra  Mandal

 - E-Mail: mandalkesab2013@gmail.com

 

Education is a dynamic process that starts from birth. A child surrounded by parents and other siblings experiences her surroundings and responds.  Anil Kumar Biswas, Universalization of Education, Kurukshetra, May 2011). “Education is the mirror to the society and is the seed as well as flower of the socio-economic development. It transforms human beings from ignorance to enlightenment, from shades of social backwardness to light of social amelioration and a nation from underdevelopment to faster social and economic development.” B.K.Pramanik and Madan Mohan Singh,  Sarva Shikhya Abhiyan and Inclusion Education, Kurukshetra, May 2011, p.16).  The general conference of UNESCO in 1964 recognized that, “Illiteracy is a grave obstacle to social and economic development and hence the extension of literacy is a pre-requisite for the successful implementation of national plans for economic and social development.” The First Education Minister of codependent India, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad said in the parliament in 1948 that, “I need hardly say that whatever be our program for industrial, scientific, agricultural, commercial or material progress and development, non of them can be achieved without an improvement of the human material which is the basis of our national wealth. That human material is largely conditioned by the training and education which it receives. It seems to me that whatever we think of defense or of food or of industry and commerce, we must take every step to see that education is given the first priority among our national requirement.” Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was quoted by B.K.Pramanik and Madan Mohan Singh, Sarva Shikhya Abhiyan and Inclusion Education, Kurukshetra, May 2011, p.17). Amartya Sen also emphasized that the solution of all problems, be they related to the economy, development or population, lies in education.

Education in the Nineteenth Century:

Indian education starts with Adam’s Report. Adam was appointed by Governor general Lord Bentinck. He completed his investigation during 1835-38. His first report was submitted on 1st July 1835. His aim was to highlight the then education scenario of Bengal and Bihar. He submitted his third report on 23rd December 1835. In this report he held up the education system of Natore police station of Rajshahi district, now in Bangladesh. But his third report was the most authentic, significant and valuable. The first part focus on the position of education in Murshidabad, Burdwan, Birbhum, Trihut and South Bihar. In this report he put forward some suggestions for the development of local deshiyo) education system. 

Education Scenario in India

India has the distinction of having one of the largest elementary education systems in the world. With more than 15 crore children enrolled and more than 30 lakh teachers, the elementary education is expanding in the country in a significant scale. But the growth is not rapid and expected, it is rather slow in pace, lower in quality. Hence, with a view to universalization of primary education in the country, the 86th amendment to the constitution of India has made free and compulsory education to all the children of 6-14 age groups a fundamental right.

According to government estimates, there are nearly 220 million children in the relevant age group, of which 4.6%, or nearly 9.2 million, are now out of school. The Union Finance Minister has hiked from Rs.15,000 crore to Rs. 21,000 crore to achieve the objectives of the Right to Education RTE), which has been aligned with the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. The following table Table – 1) shows the literacy scenario in India

Table – 1

Literacy Rate among men and women in India, 1951-2011

Census year		% of Literacy in 7+ population			Male-Female gap
	Males		Females	Total
1951	27.2		8.9	18.3		18.3
1961	40.4		15.4	28.3		25.0
1971	46.0		22.0	34.4		24.0
1981	56.4		29.8	43.6		26.6
1991	64.1		39.3	52.2		24.8
2001	75.3		53.7	64.8		21.6
2011	82.1		65.5	74.0		16.7

Source: Census Report of 2011

From the above table Table – 1) it is evident that the education rate has been increased substantially since independence. The gap between male and female is, however, wide which needs to be filled up. Total education rate in 1951 was 18.3 per cent with a male-female gap of 18.3 per cent. After a gap of 40 years the education rate doubled a little to 43.6 per cent with a larger gap of 26.6 per cent between the two genders. The latest census highlights the development that has taken place in the field educational attainment. It shows that 74.0 per cent people are educated with 82.1 per cent males and 65.5 per cent females. Still there remains a gap of 16.7 per cent between the two genders.

Table – 2

Literacy Rate by Caste Group and Sex

Categories	Types	Literacy (%)
General Literacy	Person	64.8
	Male	75.3
	Female	53.7
Scheduled Castes	Person	54.7
	Male	66.6
	Female	41.9
Scheduled Tribes	Person	47.1
	Male	59.2
	Female	34.8

Source : Census of India, 2001

Next, comes the literacy rate of the people belong to general and backward castes. It is evident from the above Table – 2 that literacy rate of general castes was 65.8 Male – 75.3% and Female – 53.7%) while this rate was comparatively low for Scheduled Castes 54.7 per cent Male – 66.6% and Female – 41.9%) in comparison to general castes. However, the rate is far below in case of Scheduled Caste people i.e. 47.1 per cent Male – 59.2% and Female – 34.8%).

Table – 3

Literacy Rate by Religious Communities

Categories	Persons	Male	Female (%)
Hindus	65.1	76.2	53.2
Muslims	59.1	67.6	50.1
Christians	80.3	84.4	76.2
Sikhs	69.4	75.2	63.1
Buddhists	72.7	83.1	61.7
Jains	94.1	97.0	90.6

Source : Census of India, 2001

Further, when the question of literacy comes regarding Religious Communities, it is found that total 65.1 per cent Hindu persons are educated Male – 76.2% and Female – 53.2%). It is little lesser for Muslims 59.1%). Christian community is well educated in India with 80.3 per cent Male –84.4% and Female – 76.2%) and the most educated are Jains with 94.1 per cent Male – 97.0% and Female – 90.6%). Sikhs 69.4%) and Buddhists 72.7%) are little behind them in terms of educational attainment. The following table Table – 4) shows the population and literacy rate in West Bengal. It indicates that West Bengal has the fourth largest population with 91,347,736 persons which is 7.55% of the total population of the country. The state has a little more  education rate with 77.1 per cent Males – 82.7% and Females – 71.2%). Sex Ratio is 947 and Child Sex Ratio CSR) is 950 per 1000 males. 34. 3 per cent population lives below poverty line BPL) while Infant Mortality Rate IMR) is 33 per one thousand children born.

                                    Historical Perspective of Education in India

Steps towards Universalization of Elementary Education

The first major International affirmation on Education for All was considered at the World Conference on Education in Jomtein Thailand) in 1990 when 155 countries including India and 155 organizations resolved to universalize primary education and significantly reduce illiteracy before 2000. The conference adopted the vision that all children have the fundamental human right to basic education. Later, in the World Education Forum at Dakar, Senegal 2000) 164 countries including India) reaffirmed the goal of education for all as laid out at the Jomtein and other international Conferences. It urged Governments to achieve quality basic education for all by 2010 or earlier, with an emphasis on girl’s education. This was followed by the UN Millennium Development Goal 2000), which binds countries to ensure that all children everywhere complete primary schooling by 2010.

As a result, the government of India has launched in 2001 Sarva Shiksha Abhuyan SSA), a flagship program in partnership with the state government to cover the entire country and address the needs of 192 million children in 1.1 million habitations. The SSA program aims at:

Strengthening school infrastructure by constructing new building and upgrading the existing building.

Providing teachers and also building their capacities through training.

Seeks to provide quality education including life skills.

Promoting community participation in primary education by formulating Village Education Committees. And involving them in planning and raising community contribution for primary education.

It aims at bridging social, regional and gender gaps in literacy and primary education.

It focuses on girl education and children with special needs.

It seeks to provide computer education to bridge the digital divide.

National Policy on Education

Education in India has a history stretching back to the ancient urban centers of learning at Taxila and Nalanda. Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj. Since independence, the education policies of successive governments have built on the substantial legacies of the Nehruvian Period, targeting the core themes of Plurality and Secularism, with a focus on excellence in higher education, and inclusiveness at all levels.

Traditional education in India served a very limited purpose of a particular section of the society belonging to certain caste. During medieval period education was similarly elitist, favoring the rich. These pre-existing elitist tendencies were reinforced under British rule. The modern education system of British Raj was first developed in the three Presidencies Bombay, Calcutta, Madras). In the early 1900s, the Indian National Congress called for national education, placing emphasis on technical and vocational training. In 1920 the Congress initiated a Boycott of Government-aided and Government controlled schools and founded several ‘national’ schools and college. In 1937 Gandhiji raised his voice in favor of universal education. Nehru viewed that education for all and industrial developments were seen as crucial tools to unite a country divided on the basis of wealth, cost and religion, and formed the corner stone of the anti-imperial struggle. So after independence, school curricula were imbued with the twin themes of inclusiveness and national pride, placing emphasis on the fact that India’s different communities could be peacefully live and grow side by side as one nation.

Drawing on Nehru’s vision, the Kothari Commission 1964) was set up to formulate a coherent education policy for India. According to the commission, education was intended to increase productivity, develop social and national unity, consolidate democracy, modernize the country and develop social, moral and spiritual values. To achieve this, the main pillar of Indian policy was to be free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14. Other features included the development of languages, equality of educational opportunities and the development and prioritization of scientific education and research. The commission also emphasized the need to eradicate illiteracy and provide adult education.

After Kothari Commission’s 1964) recommendations Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, announced a new education policy called National Education Policy 1986. The National Policy on Education NPE) was intended to prepare India for the 21st century. The policy emphasized the need for change and noted ‘Education in India stands at the Crossroads today. Neither normal liner expansion nor the existing pace and nature of improvement can meet the needs of the situation.’

According to the new policy the 1986 policy) goals had largely been achieved: more than 905 of the country’s rural population was within a kilometer of schooling facilities and more states had adopted a common education structure. The prioritization of science and mathematics had also been effective. The 1986 policy was reviewed by a committee constituted in 1990 under the chairmanship of Acharya Ramamurti. On the basis of the recommendations of this committee, certain provisions of the 1986 policy were modified in 1992.

Apart from the above mentioned policies, a few other important national programs had been undertaken in this regard. The programs and steps can be highlighted in brief. 

1. Operation Blackboard (1987): This program aimed to improve the human and physical resources available in primary school. It was introduced in 1987 realizing the unsatisfactory condition of school environment, improper condition of buildings and insufficiency of instructional material in primary schools. The scheme stressed on bringing all primary schools in the country up to a minimum standard. The minimum infrastructure for a primary school envisaged under the scheme was : a) at least two reasonably large constructed rooms along with separate toilet facility for boys and girls. b) at least two teachers as far as possible, one of them a woman, and c) essential teaching and learning material including blackboard, maps, charts, a small library, toys, games and some equipments for work experience. Later the scheme was extended to cover upper primary schools.

2. Non-Formal Education: This program was initiated on the recommendation of National Policy of Education NPE -1986) to achieve the universalization of primary education by the end of 2000. The NPE admitted that the schools had not reached to all children. There was enough flexibility to enable the learners to learn at their own pace and the same time the quality of education will also be given equal importance.

3. Mid-day Meal: The National Program of Nutritional support to Primary Education, commonly known as Midday Meal Scheme was launched in 1995. The program was intended to give the boost to universalization of primary education by increasing enrollment, retention, attendance. It was also visualized that it will help in taking care of nutritional levels of students in primary schools. Though it was envisaged that the cooked food will be distributed in the school, somehow it has not worked out and food grains at the rate of three kg. per student per month are distributed, subject to a student’s minimum attendance of 80 per cent. However, in West Bengal cooked food is distributed to the students. The women of Self Help Groups have been mobilized to cook food in the school premises and serve the students with food in close assistance with the teachers of the concerned schools.

Restructuring and Reorganization of Teacher Education 1987: It created a resource for the continuous upgrading of teacher’s knowledge and competence.

Minimum Levels of Learning (1991): This laid down levels of achievement at various stages and revised textbooks.

District Primary Education Program (DPEP -1993): DPEP emphasized decentralized planning and management, improved teaching and learning materials, and school effectiveness. The objective of the DPEP are to: a) develop and implement, in selected districts a replicable, sustainable and cost effective program so as to reduce differences in enrollment, drop out and learning achievement among gender and social groups to less than 5 per cent. b) reduce overall dropout rates for all students to less than 10 per cent. c) raise the average age of primary achievement by 25 per cent over measures base line levels, and d) provide all children, according to the national norms, an access to primary schools, or its equivalent, whenever possible, through non-formal education. The program promotes local area planning, school mapping and micro planning. Enhancing the Teachers competency through in-service training is major component in DPEP.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA -2001): Sarva Siksha Abhiyan SSA) aimed at universalizing elementary education of satisfactory quality in the country. The program is now a flagship program of the Government. Major objective of the Universalization project are: 1) All children in school Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate School, back to School by 2003. 2) All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007. Universalization of the primary education up to 1-7 years. 3) All children must complete eight years of schooling by 2010. 4) Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for life, and 5) Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stages by 2007 and at elementary education level by 2010.

The Rastriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA):  On the liner of SSA, it is expected to bring in the desired investments in Secondary Education and facilitate the process of universalizing secondary education in the country.

There should be an effort to forge a creative synthesis between the West and the East and between the North and the South which was indeed the basic philosophy of the Report of the UNESCO international Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century.

What is the Right to Education Act?

The last education commission under the British, the Sergeant Commission, had in 1945 envisaged a forty year time frame for universal education; that is by 1985. The Constitution did not enact education a fundamental right, but made the article 45 under Part 4 of the Constitution of the Directive Principles, calling on the state to ‘Endeavour to provide free and compulsory education to all children up to the age 14, the only time bound article, directing the state to accomplish the task in 10 years, that is by 1960, The new article 21A, which was inserted as part of the 86th Amendment says that, “The state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children between the ages 6 and 14 through a law that it may determine”. The 42nd Amendment 1976) made education a ‘Concurrent’ subject for expansion of Primary Education facilities, particularly in backward areas, to make education easy to all, free and compulsory education, prioritization to universalization of primary education.

Though the draft of the bill was composed in the year 2005, it only received Presidential assent and was notified as a law on 3rd September, 2009 as the children’s Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act. Ultimately the Right to Education Act RTE Act) came into force in the entire country from April 1, 2010. It is now legally enforceable for every child between the age of six and fourteen years to demand free-and elementary education. The RTE Act is the first legislation in the world that puts the responsibility of ensuring enrollment, attendance and completion on the Government. The Act now makes education a fundamental right of every child between the ages of 6 and 14 specifies minimum norms in elementary schools.

Some Salient Features of the Right to Education Act (RTE Act)

As John Stuart Mill argues many years ago, it is incumbent on the state to ensure education of “every human being who is born its citizen”, overriding parental objections and long established traditions of sending children out to work. Mill concluded that the state’s intervention is needed in the most private domain of family where parents neglect to provide children with “instruction and training for the mind” along with “food for the body.” This is the reason, perhaps, why we needed a stringent legislation on compulsory education.

Any time of the academic year, a child can go to school and demand and his/her right to education has to be respected. Private education institutions have to reserve 25% of their seats starting from class - I in 2011 to economically disadvantaged students. Unaided and private schools shall ensure that children form weaker sections and disadvantaged groups shall not be segregated from the other children in the classrooms nor shall their classes be held at places and timings different from the classes held for the other children. There is a requirement of a teacher-student ration of 1.30 at each of these schools that needs to be met within a given time frame. The schools need to have certain minimum facilities like adequate teachers, playground and infrastructure. The government will evolve some mechanism to help marginalized schools comply with the provisions of the Act.

There is a new concept of ‘neighborhood schools’ that has been devised. This is similar to the model in the United States. This would imply that the state government and local authorities will establish primary schools within walking distance of one km of the neighborhood. In case of children for Class VI to VIII, the school should be within a walking distance of three km of the neighborhood.

Free and compulsory education has to be provided to all children of India in the age group of 6 to 14 years.No child shall be held back, expelled or required to pass a board examination until completion of elementary education. A child who completes elementary education up to from class VIII) shall be awarded a certificate. Will apply to all of India except Jammu and Kashmir. The Act mandates improvement in quality of education. Strict criteria for the qualification of teachers need to be evolved. School teachers will need adequate professional degree within five years or else will lose job. School infrastructure to be improved in three years, else recognition will be cancelled.

Financial burden will be subjected to physical punishment or mental harassment. Screening Procedure shall be punishable with fine. No admission test, screening test or interview either for child or parents can be undertaken. There is a provision for establishment of commissions to supervise the implementation of the act. The composition of a school management committee would be consisted of the elected representatives of the local authority, parents or guardians of children.

No teacher shall be deployed for any non-educational purposes.

No teacher shall engage himself of herself in private tuition.

No donation/capitation fee can be charged from the students/parents.

Every child is entitled to receive the education in his/her neighborhood school.

All schools have to adhere to rules and regulations laid down in this act. Three years moratorium period had been provided to school to comply.

As per the Act, the Centre and the States have agreed to share the financial burden in the ratio on 55:45. [while the Finance Commission has given Rs.25,000 crore to the States for implementing the Act. The Centre has approved an outlay of Rs. 15,000 crore for the year 2010-2011].

Objectives of Education of the Union Government

While the Centre is now focusing on “vocationalization” of secondary education, which will enable students to pursue job-oriented courses at the plus two-level. The emphasis in major government program such as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is shifting focus from universal enrolment to universal retention and quality. Attention is also being given to the governance of schools with the formation and functioning of Village Education Committees (VEC) and more transparent processes for managing school resources.